1. Basics

Definition: Systematic, disciplined, measurable approach to developing, operating, and maintaining software.
Key Models:
Waterfall, Agile, Spiral, Incremental

2. Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

Phase	Description
Requirement Analysis	Gather and document client needs.
Design	Build architecture and design specs.
Implementation	Code the solution.
Testing	Detect and fix bugs.
Deployment	Release the software.
Maintenance	Update, fix, and improve.

3. Software Development Models

A. Waterfall – “One-Way Street”

Key Features: Sequential, linear, documentation-heavy, testing late, rigid (no easy changes).
Pros: Simple, clear milestones, good for fixed requirements.
Cons: Inflexible, bugs found late, little customer feedback.
Best For: Small, stable projects.
Memory Hook: Waterfall = One-Way, Rigid.

B. Agile – “Adapt & Deliver”

Key Features: Iterative, incremental, flexible, customer collaboration, continuous testing.
Pros: Handles changes well, frequent feedback, early working software, early bug detection.
Cons: Less predictable, needs active customer input, less documentation, requires skilled team.
Best For: Dynamic, complex, customer-driven projects.
Memory Hook: Agile = Sprints + Flexibility.

C. Spiral – “Iterative + Risk Management”

Key Features: Iterative cycles (spirals), risk analysis in every phase, combines Waterfall + Agile elements.
Pros: Excellent risk control, good for large/complex systems, allows early feedback, flexible.
Cons: Complex, expensive, needs experienced teams, no fixed timeline.
Best For: High-risk, evolving, complex projects.
Memory Hook: Spiral = Cycles + Risk Checks.

D. V-Model – “Test as You Go”

Key Features: Each dev phase has a matching test phase; Verification & Validation (V&V); testing planned early.
Pros: High quality, early bug detection, clear structure.
Cons: Inflexible, no early working version.
Best For: Critical systems (defense, medical).
Memory Hook: V = Verify & Validate.

4. Software Design Principles

Modularity: Divide system into independent parts.
Abstraction: Focus on essentials, hide complexity.
Encapsulation: Bundle data and methods together.
Cohesion: Group related functionalities (high = good).
Coupling: Minimize interdependency (low = good).

5. Software Testing

Level	Purpose
Unit	Test individual modules.
Integration	Test module interactions.
System	Validate the full system.
Acceptance	Verify it meets requirements.

Types:

Manual vs Automated
Black Box: Test without knowing internal code.
White Box: Test with internal code knowledge.

6. Metrics & Quality

Metrics: LOC, defects per KLOC, productivity measures.
Quality Factors:
- Correctness – Meets requirements.
- Reliability – Works without errors.
- Maintainability – Easy to update.
- Usability – User-friendly.

7. Software Maintenance

Type	Purpose
Corrective	Fix bugs.
Adaptive	Adjust to new environments.
Perfective	Add features, improve performance.
Preventive	Prevent future issues.

8. Agile Methodologies

Scrum: Uses sprints; roles: Product Owner, Scrum Master, Team.
Kanban: Visual task boards with To-Do, In Progress, Done.
Extreme Programming (XP): Frequent releases, heavy customer feedback.

9. Software Configuration Management (SCM)

Definition: Tracking and controlling software changes.
Components:
- Version Control: Git, SVN.
- Change Management: Structured update handling.

10. Risk Management

Types:
- Project Risks (budget, schedule).
- Technical Risks (failures, incompatibilities).
- Business Risks (market shifts).
Steps: Identify → Analyze → Plan → Monitor.

11. Project Management

Key Activities: Planning, Scheduling, Resource Allocation, Monitoring.
Tools: Gantt Chart, PERT, CPM.

12. Design Patterns

Creational: Singleton (one instance).
Structural: Adapter (interface matching).
Behavioral: Observer (notify on changes).

13. Reliability & Fault Tolerance

Reliability: Probability of error-free operation.
Fault Tolerance: Ability to function during failures.

14. Emerging Trends

DevOps: Combines development and operations.
Microservices: Small, independent services.
Cloud Computing: On-demand platforms (AWS, Azure).
AI in SE: Automated testing, debugging.

15. Software Ethics

Respect user privacy.
Deliver quality software.
Avoid plagiarism and copyright issues.

MCQ

Q1. What is the primary goal of software engineering?
a) Reliable software
b) Economical software
c) Efficient software
d) All of the above

Q2. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of software?
a) Software does not wear out
b) Software is reusable
c) Software is free from defects
d) Software is intangible

Q3. Which is the first step in the software development life cycle?
a) Testing
b) Requirement analysis
c) Design
d) Implementation

Q4. Which SDLC model is best suited for projects with unclear requirements?
a) Waterfall
b) Spiral
c) Agile
d) V-Model

Q5. The primary advantage of the Spiral model is:
a) Low cost
b) Risk management
c) Linear structure
d) High speed

Q6. Which principle emphasizes dividing a program into independent modules?
a) Modularity
b) Cohesion
c) Encapsulation
d) Abstraction

Q7. Which design principle focuses on keeping the interaction between modules minimal?
a) Coupling
b) Cohesion
c) Polymorphism
d) Inheritance

Q8. Which of these ensures high cohesion?
a) Functions of a module are closely related.
b) Modules are loosely connected.
c) Data and functions are hidden.
d) Modules have high dependencies.

Q9. Which type of testing is performed without knowledge of the internal code?
a) Black box testing
b) White box testing
c) Unit testing
d) Integration testing

Q10. What is the purpose of regression testing?
a) Verify individual components
b) Test performance under load
c) Ensure new changes do not break existing functionality
d) Check compliance with requirements

Q11. In which testing phase do developers perform code testing?
a) System testing
b) Acceptance testing
c) Unit testing
d) Integration testing

Q12. In the Waterfall model, testing is performed:
a) After each phase
b) Only after implementation
c) During implementation
d) Parallel to design

Q13. What is a key feature of the Agile model?
a) Fixed requirements
b) Iterative and incremental approach
c) Strict documentation
d) Sequential phases

Q14. Which of the following is NOT a phase in the V-Model?
a) Validation
b) Deployment
c) Testing
d) Design

Q15. Fixing bugs in the software after delivery is called:
a) Preventive maintenance
b) Adaptive maintenance
c) Corrective maintenance
d) Perfective maintenance

Q16. Modifying the software to support a new operating system is an example of:
a) Corrective maintenance
b) Adaptive maintenance
c) Perfective maintenance
d) Preventive maintenance

Q17. Which metric measures the number of defects per KLOC (thousand lines of code)?
a) Defect density
b) Cyclomatic complexity
c) Function points
d) Code coverage

Q18. What does maintainability measure in software?
a) Usability
b) Performance
c) Ease of making changes
d) Efficiency

Q19. Which quality factor ensures software meets user requirements?
a) Correctness
b) Portability
c) Reliability
d) Scalability

Q20. Which chart is commonly used for project scheduling?
a) Pie chart
b) Gantt chart
c) Line chart
d) Bar chart

Q21. The critical path in project management is:
a) The longest sequence of tasks
b) The shortest path to completion
c) The path with minimal resources
d) Tasks completed in parallel

Q22. What is the primary artifact used to manage work in Scrum?
a) Product roadmap
b) Backlog
c) Sprint goal
d) Burn-down chart

Q23. Which practice is NOT part of DevOps?
a) Continuous integration
b) Continuous delivery
c) Manual deployments
d) Infrastructure as code

Q24. Singleton design pattern ensures:
a) Multiple instances of a class
b) Only one instance of a class
c) No dependency between classes
d) Polymorphism

Q25. Which pattern is used to convert one interface to another?
a) Adapter
b) Observer
c) Builder
d) Proxy

Q26. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of microservices?
a) Scalability
b) Independent deployment
c) Centralized architecture
d) Fault isolation

Q27. Which technology supports on-demand computing resources?
a) Blockchain
b) Cloud computing
c) Big data
d) Edge computing

Q1. Which of the following is the correct sequence of steps in the SDLC?
a) Coding → Design → Requirement Analysis → Testing → Maintenance
b) Requirement Analysis → Design → Coding → Testing → Maintenance
c) Design → Coding → Requirement Analysis → Maintenance → Testing
d) Testing → Design → Coding → Maintenance → Requirement Analysis

Q2. In the Agile methodology, work is divided into:
a) Modules
b) Iterations or sprints
c) Waterfalls
d) Gantt charts

Q3. What is the primary purpose of integration testing?
a) To test individual modules
b) To verify the interfaces between modules
c) To test the entire system
d) To test user acceptance

Q4. In which phase of SDLC does user acceptance testing occur?
a) Design
b) Implementation
c) Testing
d) Maintenance

Q5. Which software development model is best suited for projects with high risk and complex requirements?
a) Waterfall model
b) Agile model
c) Spiral model
d) V-Model

Q6. The V-Model is also known as:
a) Linear sequential model
b) Verification and validation model
c) Prototype model
d) Incremental model

Q7. Which of the following metrics measures software complexity?
a) Function points
b) Cyclomatic complexity
c) Defect density
d) Productivity

Q8. Reliability in software is measured in terms of:
a) Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)
b) Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)
c) Both MTBF and MTTR
d) Lines of code

Q9. Which of the following design principles minimizes the interdependencies between modules?
a) Modularity
b) Abstraction
c) Cohesion
d) Coupling

Q10. What is the primary goal of abstraction in software design?
a) To hide unnecessary details from the user
b) To combine data and functions
c) To reduce the size of the software
d) To ensure portability

Q11. Fixing errors found in software after delivery is referred to as:
a) Adaptive maintenance
b) Perfective maintenance
c) Corrective maintenance
d) Preventive maintenance

Q12. Adding new functionality to software after deployment is an example of:
a) Corrective maintenance
b) Adaptive maintenance
c) Perfective maintenance
d) Preventive maintenance

Q13. Which of the following tools is used for project scheduling?
a) Gantt chart
b) Flowchart
c) Histogram
d) Pie chart

Q14. The critical path in project management is:
a) The shortest path to completion
b) The longest path in terms of time
c) The path with the highest costs
d) The path with the most resources

Q15. In Scrum, who is responsible for removing obstacles faced by the team?
a) Product Owner
b) Scrum Master
c) Development Team
d) Stakeholders

Q16. Which of the following is NOT a principle of DevOps?
a) Continuous Integration
b) Continuous Deployment
c) Manual Code Review
d) Infrastructure as Code

Q17. Risk mitigation involves:
a) Identifying risks only
b) Analyzing and prioritizing risks
c) Reducing the impact of risks
d) All of the above

Q18. Business risks in software engineering include:
a) Schedule slippage
b) Budget overruns
c) Changing market conditions
d) Technical feasibility issues

Q19. What is the primary benefit of microservices architecture?
a) Centralized architecture
b) Independent and scalable services
c) High dependency between modules
d) Minimal fault tolerance

Q20. Continuous Delivery ensures that:
a) Software is always production-ready
b) All manual testing is eliminated
c) Software design is completely automated
d) Only deployment is automated

Software Engineering